Comparative Analysis of the Educational Philosophies

Of Lev Vygotsky and Alexander Luria

Introduction

Lev Vygotsky and Alexander Luria have been influential figures in the development of psychological and educational theories in the 20th century with important repercussions in 21st Century teaching, whether that is for content or language learning. Both pedagogical thinkers made significant contributions to our understanding of cognitive development and learning processes. Vygotsky is renowned for his theory of social constructivism, which highlights the importance of social interactions in learning. Luria is celebrated as a founding figure in neuropsychology, providing insights into the neurological underpinnings of cognitive functions. This reflective journaling paper, a by-product of a three-week AI training with Dr. Rubén Puentedura in June 2024, aims to compare and contrast their educational philosophies, highlighting their unique contributions and shared perspectives. By doing so, my reflective journaling seeks to spotlight how their theories can be integrated to enhance educational practices in language teaching.

Vygotsky’s Educational Philosophy

Social Constructivism

Vygotsky’s theory of social constructivism posits that cognitive development is fundamentally a socially mediated process. He argued that learning occurs through social interactions, where individuals construct knowledge collaboratively. Vygotsky says that “cognitive development occurs as a result of social interactions. In this way, learning is innately collaborative. He believed social negotiation was essential for building knowledge and understanding concepts” (Gowrie New South Wales, n.d.). This perspective emphasizes the importance of social context and cultural tools in shaping cognitive functions. Vygotsky believed that cognitive development could not be fully understood without considering the social environment in which it occurs. This approach has profound implications for classroom practices, encouraging collaborative learning and the use of group activities to foster knowledge construction.

“Vygotsky is very important in second language learning because he introduced the concept of language learning in social interaction” (Pathan, Memon, Memon, Khoso, & Bux, 2011). Many current and former language teaching approaches include pair work and group activities to help learners negotiate meaning and test their theories about language use in context. Vygotsky’s “sociocultural theory basically lays emphasis on the role which is played by social, cultural, and historical artifacts in the child’s mental development” (Pathan, Memon, Memon, Khoso, & Bux, 2011). In language learning, to move learners out of their lowest ebb, this means that their social backgrounds, cultural upbringing, and the artifacts present in their environment contribute to their language development, boosting their ZCD (Zone of Current Development) with teachers organizing language production activities.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

A cornerstone of Vygotsky’s educational theory is the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). Based on Mabry (2023), the “Zone of proximal development represents the metaphorical gap between what a learner can do and what they can’t do…yet.” In other words, the ZPD represents the gap between what language learners can achieve independently and what they can achieve with guidance and support from a more knowledgeable other like a language instructor.

This concept underscores the importance of scaffolding in education, where teachers provide the necessary support to help students reach their potential. Though Vygotsky never used the concept of Scaffolding, ZPD involves adjusting the level of assistance provided to match the learner’s current level of performance, gradually reducing support as the learner becomes more proficient allowing them not to be gagged by aeras of the target language they ignore. “For teachers, the ZPD is the space between current teaching knowledge and potential new level with assistance” (McLeod, 2024). This dynamic and responsive approach to teaching aligns with Vygotsky’s belief that the educator, or a more competent peer, can support the student while going through the zone of proximal development.

Cultural Tools and Mediation

Vygotsky highlighted the role of cultural tools, such as language and symbols, in cognitive development. He believed that these tools mediate mental functions and are essential for higher-order thinking. Language, in particular, is seen as a primary means of mediating thought processes. Vygotsky “also highlighted the importance of cultural tools in cognitive development” (Brodowicz, 2024) “Cultural tools” are those made by human beings (language, sign system, etc.) and those that carry the accumulated knowledge of the culture (book, computer, etc.)” (Brodowicz, 2024). From a psychological stance, this set of gestalts (cultural parts) that contribute to our cultural learning helps us in our cognitive development and, consequently, to our language development.

Based on Vygotsky’s assertions, cultural tools can extend language and cognitive abilities by enabling individuals to perform tasks that would be impossible with innate capabilities alone. In the miasma of language learning, where students often face frustration, this perspective emphasizes the importance of integrating cultural tools into educational practices. This includes classroom tasks that promote the use of language-rich activities and culturally relevant materials, whether they are printed or electronic books, or a face-to-face (F2F) or virtual classroom with defined participant roles (instructor, students, assistant, etc.). Teachers rely on various cultural tools to help learners move from their zone of current development (ZCD) to their zone of proximal development (ZPD).

Language and Thought

For Vygotsky, language plays a crucial role in the development of thought. He proposed that inner speech, or internalized language, is central to cognitive processes (Gowrie New South Wales, n.d.). This view underscores the importance of linguistic development in education from the early stages, as it facilitates complex thinking and problem-solving. Applying this concept to language teaching and learning, the internalization of lexical and grammatical units helps learners cognitively process new language and engage in communication tasks—tasks that would be impossible without the assimilation of new language. It's not tell-tale; both the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and the Zone of Current Development (ZCD) are crucial factors to consider when planning a language class.

Vygotsky argued that language serves as a tool for thought, enabling individuals to organize and articulate their ideas (Brodie, 2024). This highlights the importance of fostering language development in foreign language educational settings, encouraging communication activities that promote verbal expression, dialogue, and reflective thinking; these communicative tasks allow students not just to toy and experiment with the new language but to know if they are organizing their thoughts in the target language idiomatically (good word choice and accurate syntactical structuring of the statements and questions). By allowing learners to toy with new language in class and encouraging them to reflect on what they are learning, we can prevent them from feeling their first real twinge of regret for having enrolled in a language class.

Luria’s Educational Philosophy

Neuropsychology

Alexander Luria’s work in neuropsychology focused on the relationship between brain functions and cognitive processes (Zaytseva, Chan, Pöppel, & Heinz, 2015). His approach to education incorporates an understanding of the neurological basis of learning and cognitive development. For Luria, “Brain functions are considered to be the building blocks conceptualized within a cognitive-processing framework” (Zaytseva, Chan, Pöppel, & Heinz, 2015). Luria’s research provided insights into how different brain regions contribute to learning. Later on, it was discovered that depending on when an individual learned a second or foreign language, this would be stored in the same brain area but separately. Based on Dr. Joy Hirsch, “among those who had learned a second language in adolescence, however, Broca's area seemed to be divided into two distinct areas. Only one area was activated for each language. These two areas lay close to each other but were always separate, Dr. Hirsch said, and the second language area was always about the same size as the first language area” (Blakeslee, 1997).

Luria conducted extensive studies on individuals with brain injuries, revealing how specific areas of the brain are involved in various cognitive functions. This neuropsychological perspective emphasizes the biological foundations of learning, advocating for educational practices that consider individual neurological differences. Based on this concept proposed by Luria, the differentiation of one’s learning, every single individual will undergo a different process in the acquisition of a second or foreign language and the new information about that new language will either be stored in the same exact spot of the brain or barely separated but working independently.

Functional Systems

Luria proposed that higher mental processes result from complex functional systems in the brain, composed of interconnected regions working together (Zaytseva, Chan, Pöppel, & Heinz, 2015). This perspective is essential for understanding how various brain areas contribute to learning and education, emphasizing the need for a holistic view of cognitive processes. If this perspective is taken into the language learning field, it is essential to comprehend that several parts of one’s interconnected brain are needed to have a conversation, as it actually takes place in the first language. If a conversation is analyzed from Luria’s idea of higher mental processes, it implies more than the area where language is stored in the brain; a conversation in a language different from the mother tongue needs -based on Luria’s assertion- several areas of the brain to make it happen.

According to Luria, cognitive functions are not localized in isolated brain regions but emerge from the dynamic interactions among multiple areas (Bressler & Menon, 2010). This functional systems approach underscores the importance of considering the interconnectedness of cognitive processes in educational practices, promoting comprehensive strategies that address the whole brain. If one begins to think of the various processes involved in a foreign language conversation with students who are just developing the language include information processing in the target language, conceptual development where students need to identify the correspondences in the first and the second language, metacognitive process where learners find themselves intending to comprehend how their brains can much easily assimilate and process new information to respond to the interlocutor, etc. Based on these three aspects mentioned, we see the dynamism in the students’ brain in different areas.

Diagnostics and Remediation

Luria developed detailed methods for diagnosing specific cognitive deficits and designing remediation programs. His work has direct implications for special education, particularly in diagnosing and addressing learning disabilities. This approach focuses on identifying individual needs and providing targeted interventions. As mentioned by Bodrova, Leong, & Akhutina (2011), Luria’s views on “the systemic structure of higher mental functions have practical implications for designing interventions aimed at strengthening the weakest components of a developing mental function, including EF” (executive functions). In the language classroom these interventions or practical implications can be observed when the teacher, for instance, directly works with the students to help them correct pronunciation issues through drilling exercises with minimal pairs, grammar incongruences with the use of “do” and “does” through conversation tasks where they are forced to formulate questions with singular and plural subjects. All of this is done aiming to heighten gray areas in the learners’ language development and mastery.

Luria’s diagnostic methods involve careful observation and analysis of cognitive performance, allowing for precise identification of areas of difficulty. His remediation strategies are tailored to the individual, employing techniques that target specific cognitive functions. This personalized approach aligns with the principles of differentiated instruction, advocating for educational practices that meet the diverse needs of learners. This is why it is crucial that when teachers identify areas that need to be strengthened by the students, they need to work, hopefully, on a one-to-one basis with the learners to help them overcome difficulties or pair them with more robust students who can also help their partners.

Dynamic Assessment

Luria’s approach to assessment is dynamic rather than static, focusing on how cognitive processes can change and improve with intervention. As pointed out by Vergara Cabarcas, López Caraballo, Castellón Barrios, Vásquez Rossi, & Becker Arroyo (2019), “the evaluation of student's learning constitutes a very important role in the field of education since its purpose is to corroborate the achievement of the objectives previously set.” This idea of dynamic assessment aligns with Vygotsky’s ideas on the ZPD but is grounded in neuropsychological principles. Dynamic assessment emphasizes the potential for cognitive growth through tailored educational practices. In language learning this type of assessment is visible when teachers provide prompt and meaningful feedback that can help language learners cope with difficult areas in their learning.

Unlike traditional assessments, which provide a snapshot of a learner’s abilities, dynamic assessment involves continuous monitoring and adjustment of teaching strategies based on the learner’s progress. This approach reflects a commitment to fostering development and recognizing the malleability of cognitive functions, advocating for educational practices that are responsive and adaptive. One way of approaching this type of assessment is working with ongoing assessment where teachers keep a log about students’ progress, challenges, and achievements. Though it may be a tedious process for language coaches to be developed in large classes, these logs may include target vocabulary and grammatical structures that need to be mastered by learners. In this way, a record of what needs to be observed can be easily kept and completed for each language trainee.

Similarities and Differences

Emphasis on Development

Both Vygotsky and Luria strongly emphasized the importance of developmental perspectives in understanding cognitive processes, particularly in the context of education. They recognized that learning is inherently tied to growth and change, advocating for educational practices that align with the natural developmental trajectories of learners. When applied to the language classroom, their work underscores the significance of understanding the various stages of cognitive development and tailoring instruction accordingly. This approach not only facilitates language acquisition but also ensures that learners are supported at every stage of their cognitive growth.

By emphasizing the dynamic nature of learning, both theorists encourage educators to adopt practices that promote continuous cognitive development. Among these practices, timely interventions during class are crucial. These interventions allow teachers to realign students' language learning with the lesson objectives, ensuring that each learner can fully achieve the intended outcomes. By being responsive to students' developmental needs, educators can create a more effective and supportive learning environment.

Interdisciplinary Approach

Both theorists incorporated insights from various fields—psychology, education, and, in Luria’s case, neurology—to create a holistic understanding of learning. Their interdisciplinary approaches have significantly enriched educational theory and classroom practices. Vygotsky’s integration of social, cultural, and psychological perspectives, combined with Luria’s incorporation of neuropsychological insights, provides a comprehensive framework for understanding learning across various contexts, including language acquisition.

This interdisciplinary approach emphasizes the importance of drawing on diverse fields of knowledge to develop a well-rounded and informed perspective on education. By merging both Vygotsky's and Luria's approaches, language professionals can gain deeper insights into the specific needs of language learners, such as issues with pronunciation accuracy, mastery of grammatical and syntactical structures, and appropriate word choice based on context and interaction types. Understanding these aspects allows teachers to implement targeted and effective language practices that support and enhance students' language development in the classroom.

Through this comprehensive framework, educators can adopt more sensitive and evidence-based strategies, ultimately leading to more successful language learning outcomes for learners. This approach not only addresses immediate learning needs but also contributes to the long-term cognitive and linguistic growth of students.

Importance of Environment

Both Vygotsky and Luria highlighted the importance of the environment in shaping cognitive development. However, while Vygotsky focused more on social and cultural aspects, Luria concentrated on neuropsychological factors. Vygotsky’s emphasis on the social environment underscores the role of interaction and cultural tools in learning, advocating for educational practices that foster collaborative and culturally responsive learning experiences. As McLeod (2024) states, “Once thought and language merge, the social language is internalized and assists the child with their reasoning.” Building on Vygotsky’s ideas and McLeod’s statement, language classes should incorporate a variety of interactive exercises where students—whether they are children, adolescents, or adults—use their “social language” to negotiate meaning in the target language. Vygotsky suggests that through these culturally responsive learning experiences, students can develop their interlanguage in the classroom, which they can also test outside the classroom, ideally with competent foreign language or native speakers.

In contrast, Luria’s focus on the neuropsychological environment highlights the significance of the brain’s structure and function in learning, advocating for educational practices that consider individual neurological differences. Lamdan & Yasnitsky describe Luria in the 1930s as a “neurologically-inclined defectologist” (2013) who clearly understood that no two individuals learn in the same way and that targeted interventions are necessary to help students master concepts and apply them effectively. When this idea is applied to the language classroom, it implies that teachers must “intervene” in certain cognitive processes that may be challenging for some learners, such as pronunciation, grammar, or meaning. It is the creativity of the educator that leads to the design of exercises incorporating these interventions, helping students identify and focus on areas they need to improve to achieve their learning goals.

Theoretical Foundations

Vygotsky’s (1978) theories are rooted in social and cultural contexts, emphasizing the role of social interaction and cultural tools in learning. His social constructivism provides a framework for understanding how social interactions and cultural tools shape cognitive development. In a language classroom where English is being learned, this can translate into group work and collaborative activities, where students engage in discussions, role-plays, or projects that mirror real-life cultural situations. For example, students might work together to simulate a farmer’s market negotiation in English, using language that reflects the cultural nuances of English-speaking societies (e.g. vocabulary usage such as head of lettuce or cabbage, corn on the cob, etc.). This approach not only helps learners practice the language but also ensures that they understand its cultural context and use.

In contrast, Luria’s theories are grounded in neuropsychology, focusing on the brain’s role in cognitive processes and learning (Zaytseva, Chan, Pöppel, & Heinz, 2015). His neuropsychological perspective provides a framework for understanding the biological foundations of learning, advocating for educational practices that consider individual neurological differences and promote cognitive health. In an English language classroom, this might involve using personalized learning strategies such as VARK that cater to the neurological profiles of different students. For instance, a teacher might incorporate activities that target memory retention, such as spaced repetition exercises or multisensory learning experiences, to support students who may have different cognitive strengths and challenges. This approach ensures that the teaching methods align with the cognitive needs of the learners, fostering a more effective and inclusive learning environment.

Focus on Language

As discussed throughout this paper, Vygotsky placed a strong emphasis on the role of language as a cultural tool in cognitive development. In contrast, while Luria acknowledged the importance of language, his focus was broader, examining how various brain functions contribute to overall cognitive processes and the construction of knowledge. Vygotsky’s emphasis on language underscores the importance of fostering linguistic development and verbal expression in education, particularly in language classrooms. He advocates for practices that promote language-rich activities and reflective thinking. Meanwhile, Luria’s broader focus on brain functions highlights the need for a comprehensive understanding of cognitive processes. He advocates for educational practices that address multiple aspects of cognition, allowing learners to assimilate content in ways that align with their very personal learning styles and cognitive strengths.

Assessment Approaches

Vygotsky’s concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) leads to formative and scaffolded approaches in education (Morales, 2022). This concept emphasizes the importance of providing support that is gradually reduced as learners gain independence. In contrast, Luria’s diagnostic and dynamic assessment methods focus on identifying specific cognitive deficits and providing targeted interventions.

Vygotsky’s Approach:

●      Scaffolding in Learning: Vygotsky’s approach to assessment emphasizes the role of scaffolding and continuous support. Teachers are encouraged to provide just enough assistance to help learners move from what they can do independently to what they can achieve with guidance.

●      Formative Assessment: This approach advocates for ongoing assessments that adjust teaching strategies based on the learner’s needs. For instance, in a language classroom, this might involve regular feedback on language use, with teachers adjusting their instructional methods based on the student’s progress.

●      Learner-Centered Practices: Vygotsky’s theory supports practices that focus on the learner’s current abilities and potential for growth, ensuring that the educational process is dynamic and responsive.

Luria’s Approach:

●      Diagnostic Precision: Luria’s approach emphasizes the importance of precise diagnosis and targeted remediation. His methods involve identifying specific cognitive challenges that a learner might face, such as difficulties in memory or language processing.

●      Dynamic Assessment: This method involves assessing how a learner responds to interventions, allowing educators to tailor support to address specific cognitive challenges. In a language classroom, this might mean creating personalized learning plans that focus on areas like vocabulary retention or grammatical structures.

●      Individualized Support: Luria advocates for practices that provide individualized support, ensuring that interventions are specifically designed to meet the unique cognitive needs of each learner.

Conclusion

Lev Vygotsky and Alexander Luria have both made lasting contributions to educational theory, each offering unique insights into cognitive development and learning processes, which can be applied to language learning. Vygotsky’s work highlights the importance of social interaction and cultural tools, while Luria’s research underscores the significance of neuropsychological foundations. Together, their theories provide a comprehensive understanding of the complexities of learning, offering valuable guidance for educators in supporting students’ cognitive development. By integrating their insights, educational practices and pedagogical mediation in language learning can be enriched to address diverse learning needs and promote effective cognitive growth in a target language. This integration advocates for a balanced approach to language education that considers social, cultural, and neuropsychological factors, promoting holistic and inclusive educational practices.

References

Blakeslee, S. (1997, July 15). When an Adult Adds a Language, It's One Brain, Two Systems. Retrieved August 18, 2024 from The New York Times: https://www.nytimes.com/1997/07/15/science/when-an-adult-adds-a-language-it-s-one-brain-two-systems.html

Bodrova, E., Leong, D., & Akhutina, T. (2011). When Everything New Is Well-Forgotten Old: Vygotsky/Luria Insights in the Development of Executive Functions. New Directions for Child, 11-28. Retrieved July 29, 2024 from https://www.engagingalllearners.ca/el/inclusion-in-the-early-years/documents/vygotsky_and_new_insights_in_ef.PDF

Bressler, S., & Menon, V. (2010, June). Large-scale brain networks in cognition: emerging methods and principles. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 14(6), 277-290. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2010.04.004

Brodie, K. (2024, n.d.). Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development – and the Zone of Proximal Development. Retrieved 13 2024, August from https://www.earlyyears.tv/: https://www.earlyyears.tv/vygotsky-sociocultural-cognitive-development-zpd/

Brodowicz, M. (2024, March 21). The Implications of Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory. Retrieved 14 2024, August from https://aithor.com/: https://aithor.com/essay-examples/the-implications-of-vygotskys-sociocultural-theory

Gowrie New South Wales. (n.d.). Lev Vygotsky's Theory of Child Development - Gowrie NSW. From https://www.gowriensw.com.au/: https://www.gowriensw.com.au/thought-leadership/vygotsky-theory#:~:text=Vygotsky's%20sociocultural%20theory%20about%20child,building%20knowledge%20and%20understanding%20concepts.

Lamdan, E., & Yasnitsky, A. (2013, September 3). “Back to the future”: toward Luria's holistic cultural science of human brain and mind in a historical study of mental retardation. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7(509). doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00509

Mabry, B. (2023, November 11). The zone of proximal development (ZPD): The power of just right. Retrieved August 15, 2024 from https://www.nwea.org/: https://www.nwea.org/blog/2023/the-zone-of-proximal-development-zpd-the-power-of-just-right/

McLeod, S. (2024, August 9). Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development. Retrieved August 16, 2024 from https://www.simplypsychology.org/: https://www.simplypsychology.org/zone-of-proximal-development.html

Morales, S. M. (2022). Effective Teachers of English Language Learners: Beliefs, Practices, and Training. Northcentral University ProQuest Dissertations & Theses. La Jolla, California, USA: Northcentral University. From https://www.proquest.com/openview/8975feb324dda65ebe62d182ce9d6af5/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y

Pathan, H., Memon, R., Memon, S., Khoso, A., & Bux, I. (2011). A Critical Review of Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory in Second Language Acquisition. International Journal of English Linguistics, 232-236. From https://ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ijel/article/view/67948

Vergara Cabarcas, L., López Caraballo, J., Castellón Barrios, D., Vásquez Rossi, C., & Becker Arroyo, E. (2019). Dynamic Assessment Approach in Language Teaching: A Review. Zona Próxima, 30, 82-99. doi:https://doi.org/10.14482/zp.30.371.3

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.

Zaytseva, Y., Chan, R., Pöppel, E., & Heinz, A. (2015, February 27). Luria revisited: cognitive research in schizophrenia, past implications and future challenges. Philosophy, Ethics, and Humanities in Medicine. doi:10.1186/s13010-015-0026-9

Assessment Approaches [Info... by Jonathan Acuña

Vygotsky & Luria [Infog... by Jonathan Acuña

Reading Comprehension Questions:

After reading the text, challenge your understanding of this essay by choosing the right answer for the following questions.

1.    What is the primary focus of Vygotsky's theory of social constructivism?

○      A) Neurological development

○      B) Social interactions in learning

○      C) Individual cognitive processes

○      D) Language acquisition without social context

2.    What is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) according to Vygotsky?

○      A) The gap between what a learner can do independently and what they can do with help

○      B) A method of evaluating a student's current knowledge

○      C) A neurological process in language learning

○      D) A cultural tool used in education

3.    Which area did Alexander Luria significantly contribute to?

○      A) Social constructivism

○      B) Cognitive-behavioral therapy

○      C) Neuropsychology

○      D) Linguistic theory

4.    How did Luria view cognitive functions in the brain?

○      A) As isolated processes

○      B) As results of complex functional systems

○      C) As random and unstructured

○      D) As purely instinctual responses

5.    What role do cultural tools play in Vygotsky’s theory?

○      A) They are irrelevant to cognitive development

○      B) They mediate mental functions and are essential for higher-order thinking

○      C) They hinder the learning process

○      D) They only influence language development in adults

6.    According to the article, how does Luria’s theory impact special education?

○      A) It suggests that all students should be taught the same way

○      B) It emphasizes the importance of diagnosing and addressing individual learning disabilities

○      C) It focuses solely on group activities

○      D) It disregards the role of neurological differences

7.    What is dynamic assessment in Luria’s educational philosophy?

○      A) A one-time test to determine a student’s capabilities

○      B) Continuous monitoring and adjustment of teaching strategies

○      C) An outdated method of student evaluation

○      D) A form of standardized testing

8.    How do Vygotsky and Luria differ in their emphasis on the environment’s role in learning?

○      A) Vygotsky emphasizes social and cultural aspects, while Luria focuses on neuropsychological factors

○      B) Both focus solely on social interactions

○      C) Vygotsky dismisses the environment's role entirely

○      D) Luria emphasizes cultural tools, while Vygotsky focuses on brain function

9.    What is one similarity between Vygotsky's and Luria's theories?

○      A) Both reject the importance of development in learning

○      B) Both advocate for educational practices that align with natural developmental trajectories

○      C) Both focus exclusively on individual learning without considering the environment

○      D) Both theories are based purely on behavioral psychology

10.  How can Luria’s insights into functional systems be applied in language learning?

○      A) By ignoring individual neurological differences

○      B) By understanding that several brain areas interact during language processing

○      C) By focusing only on rote memorization techniques

○      D) By simplifying language tasks to involve only one brain region

11.  What is the interdisciplinary approach mentioned in the article?

○      A) The study of language development without considering other fields

○      B) The integration of insights from psychology, education, and neuropsychology

○      C) A narrow focus on neurology without considering cultural aspects

○      D) The rejection of educational theory in favor of pure psychology

12.  Why is dynamic assessment preferred over traditional assessment in Luria’s theory?

○      A) It allows for a fixed evaluation of a student's abilities

○      B) It continuously adapts teaching strategies based on the learner's progress

○      C) It is easier to administer in large classes

○      D) It ignores the role of cognitive growth in learning

Answer Key:

Comparative Analysis of the... by Jonathan Acuña

Comparative Analysis of the... by Jonathan Acuña

Sunday, September 01, 2024