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Introductory
Note to the Reader Before embarking on this analysis of Eça
de Queirós’s O Defunto, I would like to share a brief personal
reflection. For as long as I can remember, stories involving nobles,
hidalgos, fidalgos, knights, and members of the medieval and early modern
gentry have captivated my imagination. While I have long admired heroic
narratives such as The Song of the Cid and The Song of Roland,
I often find myself equally drawn to works that combine aristocratic settings
with darker themes and moral dilemmas. Among such narratives, Father Luis
Coloma’s Paz a los Muertos (Peace to the Dead) and Eça de
Queirós’s O Tesouro (The Treasure) have occupied a special
place in my reading life. Their Gothic atmospheres, ethical tensions, and
reflections on human virtue and vice continue to fascinate me. In many ways, O Defunto belongs
to that same literary tradition. It intertwines noble characters, moral
conflict, religious symbolism, and supernatural suggestion in a narrative
that invites readers to reflect on the boundaries between earthly passions
and divine intervention. Perhaps this attraction to hidalgos and their
stories stems from my own ancestral connections to Spain before my forebears
eventually made their way to Costa Rica. On occasion, and only half-jokingly,
I wonder whether, in some previous reincarnation, I might have wandered among
those very hidalgos whose adventures now fill the pages of the literature I
enjoy. Whatever the reason, stories such as O Defunto continue to
offer me both intellectual pleasure and aesthetic delight, and it is in that
spirit that I invite readers to accompany me through the following analysis. Jonathan
Acuña Solano |
Between the Fantastic and the Aesthetic: A Todorovian and Kazinczyan Reading of Eça de Queirós’s O Defunto
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Abstract This
essay examines Eça de Queirós’s short story O Defunto through the
complementary theoretical perspectives of Tzvetan Todorov and Ferenc
Kazinczy. The study begins by presenting a synopsis of Todorov’s theory of
the fantastic, particularly his concept of narrative hesitation between
natural and supernatural explanations, and an overview of Kazinczy’s
aesthetic principles concerning literary refinement, stylistic elegance, and
emotional cultivation. These theoretical frameworks are subsequently applied
to Queirós’s narrative in order to explore the ways in which Gothic
atmosphere, psychological ambiguity, religious symbolism, and moral conflict
contribute to the story’s literary richness. Particular attention is devoted
to the representation of supernatural events, the role of uncertainty in the
reader’s interpretation, and the artistic qualities of Queirós’s prose. The
essay argues that O Defunto occupies a distinctive position between
the fantastic and the marvelous, while simultaneously demonstrating the
stylistic sophistication valued by Kazinczy’s aesthetic vision. By combining
structural and aesthetic approaches, the study highlights the complexity of
Queirós’s engagement with Gothic motifs, ethical concerns, and transcendental
themes. |
Keywords: Fantastic,
Gothicism, Hesitation, Aesthetics, Narrative, Supernaturalism, Symbolism,
Todorov, Kazinczy, Eça de Queirós |
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Resumen Este
ensayo examina el cuento O Defunto de Eça de Queirós a través de las
perspectivas teóricas complementarias de Tzvetan Todorov y Ferenc Kazinczy. El estudio comienza con una síntesis de la teoría de lo fantástico de
Todorov, especialmente su concepto de vacilación narrativa entre
explicaciones naturales y sobrenaturales, así como con una presentación de
los principios estéticos de Kazinczy relacionados con el refinamiento
literario, la elegancia estilística y la formación de la sensibilidad.
Posteriormente, estos marcos teóricos se aplican al relato de Queirós para
explorar cómo la atmósfera gótica, la ambigüedad psicológica, el simbolismo
religioso y el conflicto moral contribuyen a la riqueza literaria de la obra.
Se presta especial atención a la representación de los acontecimientos
sobrenaturales, al papel de la incertidumbre en la interpretación del lector
y a las cualidades artísticas de la prosa queirosiana. El ensayo sostiene que
O Defunto ocupa una posición singular entre lo fantástico y lo
maravilloso, al tiempo que manifiesta el refinamiento estilístico valorado
por la visión estética de Kazinczy. |
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Resumo Este ensaio examina o conto O Defunto, de Eça
de Queirós, a partir das perspectivas teóricas complementares de Tzvetan
Todorov e Ferenc Kazinczy. O estudo inicia-se com uma síntese da teoria do
fantástico de Todorov, especialmente seu conceito de hesitação narrativa
entre explicações naturais e sobrenaturais, bem como com uma apresentação dos
princípios estéticos de Kazinczy relacionados ao refinamento literário, à
elegância estilística e ao cultivo da sensibilidade. Em seguida, esses
referenciais teóricos são aplicados à narrativa de Queirós para explorar como
a atmosfera gótica, a ambiguidade psicológica, o simbolismo religioso e o
conflito moral contribuem para a riqueza literária da obra. Dá-se especial
atenção à representação dos acontecimentos sobrenaturais, ao papel da
incerteza na interpretação do leitor e às qualidades artísticas da prosa
queirosiana. O ensaio argumenta que O Defunto ocupa uma posição
singular entre o fantástico e o maravilhoso, ao mesmo tempo em que demonstra
o refinamento estilístico valorizado pela visão estética de Kazinczy. |
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Eça de
Queirós remains one of the most important literary figures of
nineteenth-century Portuguese literature. Although he is often associated with
realism and social criticism, many of his short stories reveal a strong
fascination with mystery, supernatural suggestion, Gothic atmospheres, and
psychological ambiguity. From the very beginning of the story, Queirós
constructs a Gothic environment through images of darkness, enclosure, and
aristocratic severity. The
palace of D. Alonso is described as “o escuro e gradeado palácio de D.
Alonso de Lara, fidalgo de grande riqueza e maneiras sombrias” (Queirós,
1902/2002, Chapter I), thereby establishing an atmosphere marked by obscurity
and psychological tension
Among
these stories, O Defunto occupies a unique place because it combines
Catholic symbolism, medieval imagery, psychological tension, and supernatural
intervention in a narrative that oscillates between realism and the fantastic.
The story presents a world in which death, divine providence, and spectral
manifestations intersect with human jealousy and moral corruption. Through this
blend of realism and supernatural uncertainty, Queirós creates a text that can
be fruitfully examined through the theoretical lenses of Tzvetan Todorov and
Ferenc Kazinczy.
Synopsis of Todorov’s Theory
of the Fantastic
In The
Fantastic: A Structural Approach to a Literary Genre, Tzvetan Todorov
(1975) defines the fantastic as the moment of hesitation experienced by both a
character and the reader when confronted with apparently supernatural events.
According to Todorov (1975), the fantastic exists only while uncertainty remains
unresolved. If the strange event eventually receives a rational explanation,
the narrative enters the realm of the uncanny. If the supernatural is fully
accepted as real, the narrative becomes marvelous. The fantastic therefore
inhabits an unstable middle ground between skepticism and belief.
Todorov
(1975) further argues that the fantastic depends upon three principal
conditions. First, the fictional world must initially resemble ordinary reality
and obey recognizable natural laws. Second, the reader and often the characters
themselves must experience hesitation regarding the supernatural occurrence.
Third, the text must resist purely allegorical or poetic interpretations that
would dissolve the ambiguity of the event. The fantastic thus becomes an
epistemological problem involving interpretation, perception, and uncertainty.
According
to Bolongaro (2014), Todorov’s structural model transformed the study of
fantastic literature by shifting critical attention away from supernatural
content alone and toward the reader’s interpretive experience. Similarly, Roger
Caillois (1966) argues that fantastic literature destabilizes the reader’s
understanding of reality by introducing events that threaten rational systems
of explanation. These perspectives are particularly relevant for understanding
the ambiguous supernaturalism present in O Defunto.
Another
important aspect of Todorov’s framework concerns narrative perspective. Todorov
(1975) notes that fantastic literature frequently employs limited narration or
psychologically vulnerable characters whose perceptions may not be entirely
reliable. This narrative strategy intensifies ambiguity because readers cannot
fully determine whether supernatural phenomena objectively occur or merely
reflect subjective states of mind.
Kazinczy’s Aesthetic
Perspective and Literary Refinement
Unlike
Todorov, Ferenc Kazinczy did not formulate a systematic theory of fantastic
literature. Instead, his literary importance lies in his aesthetic philosophy
and his efforts to cultivate linguistic and artistic refinement within
literature. According to the Encyclopaedia Britannica (n.d.), Kazinczy
played a central role in the modernization of Hungarian literary language and
promoted ideals associated with Enlightenment aesthetics and European
classicism.
Kazinczy
emphasized elegance, emotional nuance, stylistic harmony, and expressive
sophistication as essential literary values. His literary philosophy was
heavily influenced by writers such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and William
Shakespeare, whose works demonstrated the artistic possibilities of
psychologically rich and aesthetically refined prose and drama.
Queirós’s
prose demonstrates the type of aesthetic refinement associated with Kazinczy’s
literary ideals. D. Leonor is
described as “uma menina falada em Castela pela sua alvura, cabelos cor de
sol-claro e colo de garça real” (Queirós, 1902/2002, Chapter I). The
poetic imagery and rhythmic elegance of this description elevate the narrative
beyond simple storytelling and transform physical beauty into an artistic
experience shaped through refined language.
From a
Kazinczyan perspective, literature should not merely narrate events but should
elevate human sensibility through artistic beauty and emotional depth. This
approach becomes highly relevant when examining O Defunto, since Queirós
constructs his Gothic and supernatural atmosphere through carefully
orchestrated prose rather than sensational excess. The emotional power of the
story emerges from its stylistic control, symbolic imagery, and rhythmic
narrative structure.
The Fantastic Structure of O
Defunto
Several
scholars have identified Gothic and fantastic elements in Queirós’s fiction.
Matos (2020) argues that stories such as O Defunto, A Aia, and O
Tesouro incorporate classic Gothic motifs including obscurity, suspense,
supernatural suggestion, and fear. According to Matos (2020), Queirós does not
employ these elements merely for entertainment but rather as literary
mechanisms that deepen symbolic and psychological meaning.
In O
Defunto, the narrative revolves around jealousy, betrayal, death, and
divine intervention. The medievalized setting, nocturnal atmosphere, and
religious symbolism create a world in which supernatural possibilities appear
plausible despite the realistic texture of the narration. The appearance of the
dead figure, o forcado (the hanged man), introduces precisely the kind
of epistemological uncertainty described by Todorov (1975).
The
reader continually hesitates between competing interpretations. Is o forcado
(the dead man) genuinely returning from beyond the grave? Is the event a
miraculous manifestation of divine justice? Or is the apparition merely a
psychological projection generated by fear and guilt? Because the narrative
refuses to provide definitive clarification, the story remains within the
fantastic mode as defined by Todorov (1975).
Furthermore,
Lopes and Siqueira (2018) observe that O Defunto blends fantastic
hesitation with what may be described as Christian marvelous. In this context,
supernatural intervention is linked not only to fear but also to spiritual
transcendence and religious morality. This theological dimension complicates
Todorov’s categories because Christian readers may interpret miraculous events
differently from secular readers.
The
fantastic reaches its highest intensity when D. Alonso discovers that the
expected corpse, the man that he has staved to death, has mysteriously
disappeared. The narrator states
that he “não encontrara... o corpo de D. Rui de Cardenas” (Queirós,
1902/2002, Chapter IV). At this precise moment, both the character and
the reader experience the hesitation described by Todorov (1975), since
rational explanation begins to collapse before apparently supernatural, divine
intervention.
Psychological Anxiety and
Narrative Ambiguity
A
Todorovian analysis of O Defunto reveals that Queirós carefully
constructs narrative ambiguity through psychological tension and atmospheric
uncertainty. Characters frequently inhabit emotional states dominated by
anxiety, suspicion, fear, and guilt. These emotional conditions destabilize
perception and intensify the uncertainty surrounding supernatural events.
D.
Alonso’s jealousy gradually assumes pathological dimensions throughout the
narrative. The narrator explains that he “constantemente agora o trazia
vigiado” (Queirós, 1902/2002, Chapter II), revealing the obsessive
surveillance through which fear and suspicion begin to dominate his perception
of reality., his wife D. Leonor is being unfaithful to him with D. Rui. D.
Alonso’s psychological instability contributes directly to the atmosphere of
uncertainty that Todorov (1975) identifies as essential to the fantastic mode.
According
to David Roas (2011), fantastic literature derives much of its power from its
capacity to undermine the reader’s confidence in reality itself. The
supernatural becomes disturbing precisely because it disrupts ordinary
epistemological frameworks. In O Defunto, death ceases to function as a
definitive boundary separating the living from the dead. The apparent
permeability between these realms generates existential and psychological
instability. It is in this type of realm that o forcado is able to help
D. Rui since D. Leonor’s prayer to Santa Virgem do Pilar and since the Virgin
has commanded him to do so.
Queirós
intensifies this effect through descriptive language filled with darkness,
silence, sacred spaces, shadows, and nocturnal imagery. Such Gothic elements
create an environment in which ordinary rationality becomes increasingly
fragile. As Todorov (1975) explains, the fantastic depends upon this
instability because uncertainty itself constitutes the essence of the genre.
Stylistic Beauty and
Kazinczyan Refinement
While
Todorov’s framework explains the structural ambiguity of O Defunto,
Kazinczy’s aesthetic ideals help illuminate the artistic sophistication of
Queirós’s prose. The story’s effectiveness depends not only upon supernatural
uncertainty but also upon the elegance with which the atmosphere is
constructed.
The
reader is then able to understand that Queirós employs rhythmic prose, symbolic
density, and emotional restraint to create tension gradually rather than
relying upon explicit horror. From a Kazinczyan perspective, this stylistic
refinement transforms the story into a work of aesthetic harmony rather than
mere Gothic sensationalism. It is not just a supernatural narrative where a
dead forcado turns back to life to help a lady in distress, to aid D.
Rui who has been deceived, and to redeem himself for whatever reason he was
hanged up.
Kazinczy
(n.d.) believed that literary language should cultivate emotional sensitivity
and artistic appreciation. In O Defunto, Queirós achieves this through
subtle narrative pacing and carefully balanced imagery. The supernatural
elements are presented with poetic ambiguity, allowing the story to oscillate
between terror and transcendence.
Herrero
Cecilia (2010) argues that fantastic literature often functions through a
“poetics of indeterminacy” in which uncertainty itself becomes aesthetically
productive. This observation aligns closely with both Todorov’s structuralism
and Kazinczy’s aesthetic ideals. In Queirós’s story, ambiguity becomes not only
a thematic device but also an artistic principle.
This
aestheticization of the fantastic distinguishes Queirós from purely Gothic
sensationalism. The story’s emotional power emerges from the fusion of beauty
and fear. Such fusion resembles what later theorists of the fantastic would
describe as the coexistence of attraction and anxiety within supernatural
literature. Juan Herrero Cecilia (2010) notes that fantastic literature
frequently operates through a “poetics of indeterminacy,” in which uncertainty
itself becomes aesthetically productive. From a Kazinczyan perspective, the
literary value of O Defunto lies precisely in this aesthetic control.
The language shapes emotional perception with elegance and discipline, allowing
the supernatural to appear both believable and transcendent.
Religion, Morality, and
Symbolic Justice
Another
important dimension of O Defunto concerns morality and divine justice.
Unlike many modern fantastic narratives that emphasize existential absurdity,
Queirós’s story retains a strong ethical framework. The supernatural
intervention appears connected to moral restoration and spiritual order.
The
conclusion of the story transforms supernatural fear into spiritual
transcendence. D. Rui raises his
eyes “com uma esperança muito pura e toda feita de graça celeste, como se um
anjo o chamasse” (Queirós, 1902/2002, Chapter V). This
celestial imagery complicates Todorov’s categories because the supernatural
event can simultaneously be interpreted as miraculous intervention,
psychological redemption, or divine providence.
This
moral dimension complicates Todorov’s theory because the fantastic in O
Defunto does not merely generate epistemological uncertainty; it also
points toward metaphysical meaning. The apparition of the dead figure functions
simultaneously as Gothic horror and sacred sign. The supernatural therefore
becomes ethically charged.
Scholars
examining Queirós’s fantastic fiction have often observed that his narratives
combine irony, realism, and spiritual symbolism. Vera Lúcia Silva (2007) argues
that Queirós frequently employs fantastic discourse to explore deeper tensions
within modern society, religion, and psychological consciousness. In O
Defunto, supernatural ambiguity ultimately reveals anxieties concerning
sin, guilt, divine judgment, and redemption.
This
moral and symbolic complexity also resonates with Kazinczy’s literary ideals.
For Kazinczy (n.d.), literature possessed ethical and cultural functions beyond
entertainment. Artistic beauty contributed to the refinement of human
sensibility and moral awareness. O Defunto fulfills this ideal by
transforming a tale of death and jealousy into a meditation on transcendence
and spiritual accountability.
Conclusion
A
combined Todorovian and Kazinczyan reading of O Defunto demonstrates the
richness and complexity of Eça de Queirós’s short fiction. Through Todorov’s
theory of the fantastic, the story emerges as a narrative structured around
hesitation, ambiguity, and epistemological instability. The reader remains
suspended between rational explanation and supernatural belief, thereby
experiencing the essential uncertainty that defines the fantastic genre.
Queirós achieves this effect through limited perception, Gothic atmosphere,
psychological tension, and unresolved supernatural phenomena.
At the
same time, Kazinczy’s aesthetic principles illuminate the stylistic
sophistication of the narrative. The power of O Defunto lies not solely
in its supernatural content but in the artistic refinement of its language and
atmosphere. Queirós transforms Gothic motifs into aesthetically controlled
literary expressions marked by elegance, symbolic resonance, and emotional
nuance.
Additional
scholars such as Roger Caillois (1966), Louis Vax (1965), Irène Bessière (1974),
and David Roas (2011) further reinforce the understanding of fantastic
literature as a mode that destabilizes reality while revealing deeper cultural
and psychological anxieties. In Queirós’s story, the fantastic becomes not
merely a literary device but a means of exploring morality, faith, fear, and
transcendence.
Ultimately,
O Defunto remains suspended between supernatural mystery and spiritual
transcendence. The final reference to rulers “por quem Deus operou grandes
feitos sobre a terra e sobre o mar” (Queirós, 1902/2002, Chapter V)
reinforces the narrative’s unresolved oscillation between divine miracle and
fantastic uncertainty. Through this ambiguity, Queirós creates a story that demonstrates that Queirós cannot be confined
exclusively to realism. His fiction frequently traverses the borders between
realism, Gothic narrative, religious symbolism, and the fantastic. Through the
convergence of Todorov’s structural ambiguity and Kazinczy’s aesthetic
refinement, the story reveals itself as a carefully crafted meditation on
death, uncertainty, and the mysterious permeability between the visible and
invisible worlds.
San José, Costa Rica
Friday, May 29, 2026
📚 References
Bessière, I.
(1974). Le récit fantastique: La poétique de l’incertain. Larousse.
Bolongaro, E. (2014). The fluidity of the
fantastic: Todorov’s legacy to literary criticism. Ticontre.
Teoria Testo Traduzione, 1, 25–38.
https://doi.org/10.15168/t3.v1i1.18
Caillois,
R. (1966). Au cœur du fantastique.
Gallimard.
Herrero Cecilia, J.
(2016). Sobre los aspectos fundamentales de la estética del género fantástico y
su evolución desde lo fantástico “romántico” a lo fantástico “posmoderno”. Çédille:
Revista de Estudios Franceses, 6, 15–51. https://www.ull.es/revistas/index.php/cedille/article/view/1227
Kazinczy, F.
(n.d.). Literary
and linguistic writings. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ferenc-Kazinczy
Lopes,
A. C. C. V., & Siqueira, A. M. A. (2018). A representação do “milagre” em
“Natal na barca” e “O defunto”: Diferentes manifestações literárias do
insólito. Raído, 12(29), 98–112.
https://doi.org/10.30612/raido.v12i29.7767
Matos,
X. A. (2020). Eça de Queirós contista: O gótico nas narrativas “A aia”, “O
tesouro” e “O defunto”. Em Tese, 25(1), 210–222. https://periodicos.ufmg.br/index.php/emt/article/view/31551
Queirós,
E. de. (2002). Contos. Livros do Brasil.
Roas, D. (2011). Tras
los límites de lo real: Una definición de lo fantástico. Páginas de Espuma.
Silva,
V. L. (2007). O fantástico em O Mandarim, de Eça de Queirós. Uniletras, 29(1), 89–102. https://revistas.uepg.br/index.php/uniletras/article/view/198
Todorov, T. (1975). The fantastic: A
structural approach to a literary genre (R. Howard, Trans.). Cornell
University Press. https://openlibrary.org/books/OL5304664M/The_fantastic
Vax, L. (1965). L’art
et la littérature fantastiques. Presses Universitaires
de France.
Click to enlarge the infographics
Between the Fantastic and the Aesthetic: A Todorovian and Kazinczyan Reading of Eça de Queirós’s O Defunto by Jonathan Acuña
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